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Jurisdiction and Procedure under HMA

Topic 25 | Module 2: Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 | The Legal Bridge

For Judicial Service Aspirants: RJS | DJS | PCS-J | HJS | APO

Comprehensive Study Notes with Landmark Case Laws, Mnemonics & Exam Tips

Jurisdiction and Procedure under HMA

Relevant Provisions: Sections 19, 20, 21, 21A, 21B, 22, 23(2), 28 HMA | Family Courts Act, 1984

Priority: HIGH | Exam Relevance: RJS / DJS / PCS-J / HJS / University Exams (PROCEDURAL QUESTIONS)

1. Introduction

The procedural framework of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 is spread across Sections 19 to 28. These provisions deal with the crucial questions of WHERE matrimonial petitions can be filed (jurisdiction), HOW they must be presented (contents), HOW they are to be tried (procedure), WHAT safeguards apply (privacy, reconciliation), and HOW decisions can be challenged (appeals). While the substantive grounds for matrimonial relief capture the most attention, an effective matrimonial lawyer must equally master the procedural provisions — because procedural lapses can defeat even the strongest substantive case.

Hindu matrimonial proceedings are fundamentally CIVIL in nature, governed primarily by the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (CPC), as modified by HMA's specific provisions. Section 21 HMA expressly provides that 'subject to the other provisions contained in this Act and to such rules as the High Court may make in this behalf, all proceedings under this Act shall be regulated, as far as may be, by the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.' However, HMA adds several distinctive features reflecting the unique nature of matrimonial disputes: IN-CAMERA proceedings for privacy (S.22), mandatory reconciliation attempts (S.23(2)), expedited disposal targets (S.21B), special rules on transfer of petitions (S.21A), and specific appeal provisions (S.28).

The JURISDICTION provisions under Section 19 have undergone significant evolution. Originally, the petitioner's options for filing were limited — often requiring wife to travel to husband's jurisdiction. The Marriage Laws (Amendment) Act, 2003 substantially liberalised this, adding the WIFE'S PLACE OF RESIDENCE as an option where she is petitioner. This reform addressed practical difficulties faced by women separated from abusive or absent husbands. Understanding these jurisdictional provisions is essential — both for strategic filing and for challenging defective petitions.

This topic is REGULARLY TESTED in examinations, particularly through MCQs on specific procedural points (jurisdiction options, time limits, appeal periods) and essay questions covering the overall procedural framework. Questions also test the interplay between HMA and the Family Courts Act, 1984, which established Family Courts for matrimonial matters. A thorough command of the procedural framework is essential for success.

2. SECTION 19 — JURISDICTION

2.1 Text of Section 19

Section 19 HMA (as amended by the Marriage Laws (Amendment) Act, 2003) provides:

"Every petition under this Act shall be presented to the district court within the local limits of whose ordinary original civil jurisdiction —

(i) the marriage was solemnized, or

(ii) the respondent, at the time of the presentation of the petition, resides, or

(iii) the parties to the marriage last resided together, or

(iiia) in case the wife is the petitioner, where she is residing on the date of presentation of the petition, or

(iv) the petitioner is residing at the time of the presentation of the petition, in a case where the respondent is, at that time, residing outside the territories to which this Act extends, or has not been heard of as being alive for a period of seven years or more by those persons who would naturally have heard of him if he were alive."

2.2 The Five Jurisdictional Options

(i) Place of Solemnization: The District Court in whose jurisdiction the marriage was PERFORMED. Useful when marriage was recent or when evidence of marriage itself is at issue.
(ii) Respondent's Residence: The District Court where the respondent RESIDES at the time of filing. This is the general rule in civil proceedings — follow the defendant.
(iii) Last Residence Together: Where the parties LAST RESIDED TOGETHER as husband and wife. Captures the matrimonial home.
(iiia) Wife's Residence (Added 2003): If WIFE IS PETITIONER, where she is residing at time of filing. This is a PROGRESSIVE ADDITION allowing women to file near their own (often parental) home without traveling to husband's jurisdiction.
(iv) Petitioner's Residence (Special Case): Where petitioner resides, IF respondent is (a) outside India's territory; or (b) has not been heard of as alive for 7+ years. Essential for deserted spouses of absent/absconding respondents.

2.3 Significance of the 2003 Amendment

The Marriage Laws (Amendment) Act, 2003 added clause (iiia) — giving wife the option to file in her own jurisdiction. This was a major reform:

Previously, a wife often had to travel long distances to husband's jurisdiction.
Cost, safety, and emotional barriers deterred many legitimate claims.
The amendment recognised the practical reality of separated couples.
Reduces forum-shopping advantages of husbands who moved to avoid accountability.
Consistent with modern matrimonial jurisprudence favouring protection of women.

2.4 Concurrent Jurisdiction

More than one court may have jurisdiction simultaneously. For example:

Marriage in Delhi (Option i).
Respondent resides in Mumbai (Option ii).
Last resided together in Bangalore (Option iii).
Wife (petitioner) currently in Chennai (Option iiia).

Petitioner may CHOOSE any of these jurisdictions. However, once a petition is filed in one court, subsequent petitions between same parties in other courts may be consolidated or transferred (S.21A).

2.5 Meaning of 'Resides'

'Resides' for jurisdictional purposes means actual, settled residence — not mere temporary or transitory presence. Courts consider:

Duration of stay at the location.
Intention to remain.
Permanent address, official records.
Nature of accommodation (own home, rented, hotel).
Presence of belongings and personal effects.

3. SECTION 20 — CONTENTS OF PETITION

3.1 Text of Section 20

Section 20 HMA provides that every petition must contain:

(a) Particulars of Marriage: As distinctly as possible the facts on which the claim to relief is founded, the date and place of marriage, and the ceremonies performed.
(b) Verification: The statements contained in every petition shall be VERIFIED by the petitioner or some other competent person in the manner required by law for verification of plaints.
(c) May be referred in evidence: Statements in petitions may be referred to at the hearing of the proceeding.

3.2 Essential Contents

A properly drafted matrimonial petition should include:

Names, ages, and addresses of both parties.
Particulars of marriage — date, place, ceremonies performed, witnesses.
Subsequent cohabitation and last residence together.
Particulars of any children of the marriage.
Specific facts constituting the ground for relief.
Statement that there is NO COLLUSION or connivance.
Statement of any previous matrimonial proceedings.
The specific relief prayed for.
Verification by petitioner.

3.3 Importance of Verification

Verification is CRITICAL:

Gives the petition the character of sworn testimony.
False verification may attract perjury proceedings.
Unverified or improperly verified petitions are defective.
Statements can be referred to in evidence under S.20(2).

4. SECTION 21 — APPLICATION OF CPC

4.1 Text of Section 21

Section 21 HMA provides:

"Subject to the other provisions contained in this Act and to such rules as the High Court may make in this behalf, all proceedings under this Act shall be regulated, as far as may be, by the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908."

4.2 Significance

Section 21 establishes that matrimonial proceedings under HMA are CIVIL PROCEEDINGS governed primarily by CPC. Key implications:

Civil procedure applies: Rules on pleadings, summons, evidence, trial, decrees follow CPC.
HMA specific rules prevail: Where HMA has specific provisions (e.g., S.22 in-camera, S.23(2) reconciliation), they override CPC.
High Court rules: Each High Court can make specific rules for matrimonial proceedings — many have detailed rules for Family Courts.
Evidence Act applicable: Indian Evidence Act, 1872 (now Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 from 1 July 2024) governs evidence.

4.3 Standard of Proof

Since matrimonial proceedings are CIVIL:

Standard of proof is PREPONDERANCE OF PROBABILITIES.
NOT 'beyond reasonable doubt' (which applies to criminal matters).
Dastane v. Dastane (1975) confirmed this principle.

5. SECTION 21A — TRANSFER OF PETITIONS

5.1 Text of Section 21A

Section 21A HMA (added by 1976 Amendment) provides for transfer of petitions in specific circumstances:

Where a petition under HMA has been presented to a district court having jurisdiction, and ANOTHER petition has been subsequently presented by the other party to the marriage in ANY OTHER DISTRICT COURT, both petitions must be treated according to specific rules to avoid conflicting orders.
The second petition is to be transferred to the court in which the first petition was presented.

5.2 Rationale

Avoid multiple proceedings between same parties in different courts.
Prevent conflicting orders.
Ensure judicial economy.
Protect parties from harassment through multi-jurisdictional filings.

5.3 Examples of Application

Wife files divorce petition in Delhi; husband files RCR petition in Mumbai — Mumbai petition transferred to Delhi.
Husband files divorce; wife files counter-petition for judicial separation in different city — consolidated.
Prevents 'forum shopping' and mutually destructive proceedings.

6. SECTION 21B — EXPEDITIOUS DISPOSAL

6.1 Text of Section 21B

Section 21B HMA (added by 1976 Amendment) provides:

"(1) The trial of a petition under this Act shall, so far as is practicable consistently with the interests of justice in respect of the trial, be continued from day to day until its conclusion unless the court finds the adjournment of the trial beyond the following day to be necessary for reasons to be recorded.

(2) Every petition under this Act shall be tried as EXPEDITIOUSLY AS POSSIBLE and endeavour shall be made to conclude the trial WITHIN SIX MONTHS from the date of service of notice of the petition on the respondent.

(3) Every appeal under this Act shall be heard as expeditiously as possible, and endeavour shall be made to conclude the hearing within THREE MONTHS from the date of service of notice of appeal on the respondent."

6.2 Key Features

Day-to-day trial: Trial to be CONTINUOUS until conclusion, with adjournments only for recorded reasons.
6-month trial target: Trial to be concluded within 6 months of service of notice.
3-month appeal target: Appeals to be heard within 3 months of notice.
Practicable/as far as possible: Targets are DIRECTORY, not mandatory — recognises practical constraints.

6.3 Reality vs. Targets

In practice, these timelines are often NOT MET due to:

Heavy dockets of matrimonial courts.
Frequent adjournments for settlement discussions or mediation.
Complex evidence gathering (financial records, witnesses).
Parties' strategic delays.
Reconciliation attempts taking time.

Nevertheless, S.21B provides the LEGAL STANDARD and courts are expected to progressively reduce delays.

7. SECTION 22 — IN-CAMERA PROCEEDINGS

7.1 Text of Section 22

Section 22 HMA provides:

"(1) Every proceeding under this Act shall be conducted IN CAMERA and it shall not be lawful for any person to print or publish any matter in relation to any such proceeding except with the previous permission of the court.

(2) If any person prints or publishes any matter in contravention of the provisions contained in sub-section (1), he shall be punishable with fine which may extend to one thousand rupees."

7.2 Purpose and Significance

Section 22 is a vital PRIVACY provision:

Privacy of parties: Matrimonial proceedings involve sensitive personal matters — intimate details, allegations, financial disclosures.
Protection from stigma: Public proceedings could cause severe social stigma to parties and their families.
Protection of children: Children of the marriage are spared public scrutiny.
Encourages frank disclosures: Parties more likely to disclose full truth in private setting.
Prevents trial by media: Prohibits media reporting without court permission.

7.3 In-Camera Nature

'In-camera' means:

Proceedings conducted in closed court.
Public not admitted.
Only parties, lawyers, witnesses, court staff present.
Record of proceedings not public.
Media coverage prohibited without court permission.

7.4 Publication Prohibition

Publication is prohibited WITHOUT COURT PERMISSION. Court may permit:

Limited reports of legal principles established.
Anonymised accounts for academic purposes.
Specific aggregate data for research.

Unauthorised publication is punishable under S.22(2) — fine up to Rs 1,000 (nominal, but the prohibition itself is significant).

8. SECTION 23(2) — MANDATORY RECONCILIATION (Already covered in Topic 21)

8.1 Summary

Section 23(2) imposes a mandatory duty on courts to ATTEMPT RECONCILIATION in the first instance, in every case where it is possible consistently with circumstances. Exceptions apply to certain grounds (conversion, mental disorder, renunciation, presumption of death — where reconciliation is either inappropriate or impossible).

8.2 Section 23(3) — Reference to Counselor

Section 23(3) allows the court to ADJOURN proceedings up to 15 DAYS and REFER the matter for reconciliation to:

A person named by the parties.
A person nominated by the court.
A counselor or mediator.

Modern practice: Many courts refer matrimonial matters to MEDIATION CENTERS (like Delhi High Court Mediation Centre), which have achieved high success rates in resolving disputes amicably.

9. SECTION 28 — APPEALS FROM DECREES AND ORDERS

9.1 Text of Section 28

Section 28 HMA provides:

"(1) All decrees made by the court in any proceeding under this Act shall, subject to the provisions of sub-section (3), be APPEALABLE as decrees of the court made in the exercise of its ORIGINAL CIVIL JURISDICTION, and every such appeal shall lie to the court to which appeals ordinarily lie from the decisions of the court given in the exercise of its original civil jurisdiction.

(2) Orders made by the court in any proceeding under this Act under section 25 or section 26 shall, subject to the provisions of sub-section (3), be APPEALABLE if they are NOT INTERIM orders, and every such appeal shall lie to the court to which appeals ordinarily lie from the decisions of the court given in exercise of its original civil jurisdiction.

(3) There shall be NO APPEAL under this section on the subject of COSTS ONLY.

(4) Every appeal under this section shall be preferred within a period of NINETY DAYS from the date of the decree or order."

9.2 What is Appealable

All decrees: Under S.28(1) — decrees of divorce, judicial separation, nullity, RCR, etc. — all appealable.
Final orders under S.25 and S.26: Final orders on permanent alimony (S.25) and custody/maintenance of children (S.26) — appealable.
NOT interim orders: Interim orders under S.24 (pendente lite) or interim orders under S.25 or S.26 are generally NOT directly appealable under S.28. They may be challenged through revision or writ jurisdiction.
NOT orders on costs alone: Appeals limited to costs alone are barred under S.28(3).

9.3 Where Appeal Lies

Appeal lies to the court to which appeals ordinarily lie from original civil decrees of the trial court:

From District Court → High Court.
From High Court (in original jurisdiction) → Division Bench of same High Court.
From Family Court → High Court (per Family Courts Act, S.19).
From High Court Division Bench → Supreme Court (by leave under Article 136).

9.4 90-Day Appeal Period

Appeal must be filed within 90 DAYS from the date of decree or order. Important notes:

90 days is longer than the typical 30-day period for civil appeals — recognises the emotional and complex nature of matrimonial matters.
Limitation Act, 1963 applies — delays can be condoned under S.5 for sufficient cause.
Time runs from date of decree, not from when party becomes aware.

9.5 Appeals and Remarriage

CRITICAL: Even after a divorce decree, the parties CANNOT remarry immediately. Section 15 provides that remarriage is lawful only when:

There is no right of appeal against the decree.
OR the appeal period has expired without appeal being filed.
OR any appeal presented has been dismissed.

Thus, premature remarriage within the 90-day appeal period is bigamous.

10. FAMILY COURTS ACT, 1984

10.1 Overview

The Family Courts Act, 1984 (FCA) establishes FAMILY COURTS specifically to handle matrimonial and family disputes. Where Family Courts have been established, they have EXCLUSIVE JURISDICTION over matrimonial matters under HMA (and other family laws).

10.2 Objects of FCA

Specialised forum: Family matters require sensitive handling — separate courts with trained judges.
Speedy disposal: Reduce delays in matrimonial proceedings.
Conciliation emphasis: FCA mandates extensive attempts at settlement/conciliation.
Less technical: Simpler procedures, relaxed evidence rules where appropriate.
Party-in-person: Parties encouraged to appear in person; lawyers only with court permission (S.13 FCA).

10.3 Jurisdiction of Family Courts

Family Courts handle matters relating to:

Matrimonial relief — divorce, judicial separation, nullity, RCR, mutual consent.
Maintenance.
Guardianship and custody of children.
Matrimonial property.
Legitimacy of persons.
Declarations about marital status.
Related matters under HMA, HAMA, HMGA, S.125 CrPC (now S.144 BNSS), Special Marriage Act.

10.4 Procedure Before Family Courts

Presentation of petition: As under HMA, filed in Family Court having jurisdiction.
Settlement efforts — S.9 FCA: Family Court must try to settle the dispute through counseling before trial.
Counselors — S.5 FCA: Family Courts have dedicated counselors/psychologists/social workers.
Evidence rules — S.14 FCA: Relaxed — Family Court can act on evidence it considers relevant even if not strictly admissible under Evidence Act.
Record of oral evidence — S.15 FCA: Judge may record substance of evidence, not verbatim.
Judgment — S.17 FCA: Family Court's judgment can be brief, stating substance with reasons.
Appeals — S.19 FCA: Appeal to High Court within 30 days (shorter than HMA's 90 days — potential conflict resolved in favour of HMA's 90 days for HMA petitions).

10.5 Availability

Family Courts have been established in many major cities:

All metros (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru).
State capitals.
Other major cities based on caseload.

Where NOT established, District Courts exercise jurisdiction.

11. MEDIATION AND ADR IN MATRIMONIAL DISPUTES

11.1 Growing Importance

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) — particularly MEDIATION — has become a significant component of matrimonial litigation:

Court-referred mediation is routine.
Mediation Centers handle large volumes of matrimonial disputes.
Success rate is substantial — many cases settled without full trial.
Amicable resolution better preserves relationships (especially for children).

11.2 Process

Court refers parties for mediation, either at filing or at any subsequent stage.
Mediator (trained lawyer, judge, or professional) facilitates discussion.
Parties discuss all issues — divorce terms, alimony, custody, property.
Mediation confidential — discussions cannot be used in subsequent trial.
If settlement reached, reduced to MEDIATED SETTLEMENT AGREEMENT.
Settlement filed with court — becomes part of court order.
If no settlement, matter returns to court for trial.

12. SPECIAL PROCEDURAL ASPECTS

12.1 Service of Notice

Notice of petition must be served on respondent.
Service typically through process servers.
Substituted service permitted in some cases (publication, affixation).
In international cases, service through diplomatic channels.
Proof of service essential for proceedings to advance.

12.2 Written Statement

Respondent files WRITTEN STATEMENT in response to petition.
Admissions, denials, counter-claims.
Must raise specific defenses.
Bars to matrimonial relief (Topic 21) raised here.

12.3 Issues Framing

Court frames ISSUES based on pleadings.
Issues guide the trial — what facts/law need determination.
Each party has burden of proof on their affirmative issues.

12.4 Evidence

Petitioner examines himself/herself first (plaintiff's evidence).
Followed by respondent's evidence.
Witnesses, documents, expert evidence.
Cross-examination central.
Courts may appoint commissioners for specific evidentiary matters.

12.5 Arguments and Judgment

After evidence closure, parties' lawyers argue the case.
Court may permit written submissions.
Judgment reserved or pronounced.
Decree drawn up following judgment.

12.6 Execution of Decrees

Matrimonial decrees are executed like civil decrees:

Attachment of property for monetary decrees (alimony, maintenance).
Garnishee for salary recovery.
Contempt for wilful disobedience.
Habeas corpus for custody enforcement.
Warrants for persons (in maintenance under S.125 CrPC context).

13. VIRTUAL HEARINGS AND MODERN DEVELOPMENTS

13.1 Post-COVID Changes

The COVID-19 pandemic catalysed rapid adoption of technology in courts:

Virtual hearings via video conferencing.
E-filing of petitions and documents.
Online mediation sessions.
Digital service of notice in some cases.
Remote recording of evidence.

13.2 Benefits and Challenges

Benefits: Greater accessibility, reduced travel, faster disposal of some matters.
Challenges: Technological barriers for parties, digital divide, evidentiary reliability, maintaining in-camera nature in virtual setting.

14. LANDMARK CASES ON JURISDICTION AND PROCEDURE

⚖️ Sundarajan v. Sundari AIR 1989 SC 1318

Ratio: Supreme Court discussed jurisdictional options under S.19. Petitioner may CHOOSE among the available jurisdictions — it is not for the respondent to object to choice unless no basis exists in any clause of S.19.

⚖️ Jagraj Singh v. Bir Pal Kaur (2007) 2 SCC 564

Ratio: SC on transfer of petitions under S.21A. Where petitions between same parties are pending in different courts, consolidation in one court is essential. The court where the first petition was filed generally becomes the forum.

⚖️ K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017) 10 SCC 1

Ratio: Landmark privacy judgment (right to privacy as fundamental right). Though not directly on matrimonial law, the privacy protections affect matrimonial proceedings — reinforcing the importance of in-camera provisions under S.22.

⚖️ Manish Goel v. Rohini Goel (2010) 4 SCC 393

Ratio: SC discussed the supervisory powers in matrimonial proceedings. Parties cannot withdraw petitions without court permission in certain circumstances. Courts have inherent powers to do justice beyond technical rules.

⚖️ Dr. N.G. Dastane v. S. Dastane AIR 1975 SC 1534

Ratio: FOUNDATIONAL. Established that matrimonial proceedings are CIVIL — standard is preponderance of probabilities, not beyond reasonable doubt. Foundational for all procedural matters under HMA.

⚖️ Surya Vadanan v. State of Tamil Nadu (2015) 5 SCC 450

Ratio: SC on transfer of matrimonial petitions between states. Discussed principles for exercise of transfer jurisdiction. Convenience of wife often weighed heavily in transfer applications.

⚖️ Santhini v. Vijaya Venketesh (2018) 1 SCC 1

Ratio: SC reaffirmed that virtual hearings in matrimonial cases need careful regulation to preserve the in-camera nature and protect sensitive proceedings. Technology to aid — not undermine — privacy principles.

15. IMPORTANT POINTS FOR EXAM REVISION

Section 19 — Five Jurisdictional Options: (i) place of solemnisation; (ii) respondent's residence; (iii) last joint residence; (iiia) wife's residence (if petitioner) — ADDED 2003; (iv) petitioner's residence (if respondent outside India or missing 7+ years).
2003 Amendment: Added clause (iiia) — progressive reform for women petitioners.
Section 20 — Contents: Particulars of marriage, facts, verification, statement of no collusion.
Section 21 — CPC Applies: HMA proceedings civil in nature; CPC governs subject to HMA specifics.
Section 21A — Transfer: Multiple petitions between same parties consolidated.
Section 21B — Expeditious Disposal: Day-to-day trial; 6-month target; 3-month appeal target.
Section 22 — In-Camera: MANDATORY private proceedings; publication prohibited without court permission.
Section 23(2) — Reconciliation: Mandatory duty of court to attempt reconciliation (covered in Topic 21).
Section 28 — Appeals: 90 days; from decrees and non-interim S.25/S.26 orders; no appeal on costs alone.
Family Courts: Exclusive jurisdiction where established. Emphasis on conciliation, simpler procedure.

🧠 MNEMONIC: S.19 Jurisdiction — Five Options

(i) Solemnisation + (ii) Respondent's residence + (iii) Last joint residence + (iiia) Wife's residence (if petitioner) + (iv) Petitioner's residence (if respondent outside India/missing). Remember: 2003 added (iiia).

🧠 MNEMONIC: Key Time Limits

S.21B — 6 months trial, 3 months appeal. S.23(3) — 15 days adjournment for counselor. S.28(4) — 90 days appeal. S.26 proviso — 60 days for interim maintenance/education. S.14 — 1 year minimum before divorce petition.

🎯 EXAM TIP

Top-tested points: (1) S.19 five jurisdictional options; (2) 2003 Amendment added clause (iiia) for wife; (3) S.22 — in-camera MANDATORY; (4) S.28 — 90-day appeal period; (5) S.21B — expeditious disposal (directory); (6) Family Courts have exclusive jurisdiction where established; (7) S.21 — CPC applies subject to HMA; (8) Mediation increasingly important route.

✨ Essay Strategy

For essay on procedure: (1) Introduction — civil nature with matrimonial modifications; (2) Jurisdiction — S.19 five options + 2003 amendment; (3) Contents of petition — S.20; (4) CPC application — S.21; (5) Transfer and consolidation — S.21A; (6) Expeditious disposal — S.21B; (7) In-camera — S.22; (8) Reconciliation duty — S.23(2)+(3); (9) Appeals — S.28; (10) Family Courts Act overview; (11) Modern developments — ADR, virtual hearings.

16. PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Q1: Discuss the jurisdictional options available under Section 19 HMA for filing matrimonial petitions. What was the significance of the 2003 Amendment?

Q2: Explain the procedural framework under HMA for matrimonial proceedings. How do Sections 21, 21A, 21B, and 22 shape these proceedings?

Q3: Examine Section 22 HMA on in-camera proceedings. Why are matrimonial proceedings conducted in private? What are the restrictions on publication?

Q4: Discuss the appeal provisions under Section 28 HMA. What orders are appealable and what are the time limits?

Q5: Analyse the role of Family Courts under the Family Courts Act, 1984 in matrimonial matters. How does their jurisdiction relate to HMA?

Q6: A husband files divorce in Delhi where marriage was solemnised. The wife, now residing in Mumbai, files RCR in Mumbai. Discuss the jurisdictional issues and application of S.21A.

Q7: Discuss the mandatory reconciliation duty under Section 23(2) HMA and the provision for referring parties to counselors under Section 23(3). How are these implemented in modern practice?